Political ideologies

Political ideologies

What is an ideology?

The term Ideology, derived from a French term idéologie, means a set of ideas.  An ideology delineates a particular way of life.  It interprets the world in a unique way.  It claims to have solutions to all problems faced by the humanity or claims to find solutions based on certain fixed principles.  Ideologies unite and divide people.  Followers of an ideology are closely knit together against the followers of another ideology.  Every ideology serves the purpose of certain class or group of people in the society.  No ideology can satisfy all sections of the society at a time, so every ideology has followers and opponents.  Ideologies had a great impact on the political process mainly from the 17th to 20th century. 

The Cold War

The cold war between USA and its allies on one side and USSR and its allies on the other side, started after the end of second world war in 1945 and ended in 1991 after the collapse of the USSR and the communist system in the world, is the best example of ideological conflict.  (The communist system still exists in China, Cuba, North Korea, Vietnam and Laos.) 

The cold war was an undeclared war between two conflicting ideologies of Liberalism and Communism.  Both camps built military organisations – NATO – North Atlantic Treaty Organisation established under the leadership of USA and the Warsaw Pact (1955-1991), a communist organisation led by USSR.   Both USA and USSR were engaged in a nuclear arms race and built a stockpile of nuclear weapons capable of total destruction of the world several times.  This means all critical resources of the nations involved in the conflict were directed towards the protection of ideologies.

The End of Ideology

In 1950s and 60s Daniel Bell and few others started talking about the ‘end of ideology’.   In 1960 Daniel Bell published a book named ‘End of Ideology’.  The discourse of liberalisation, privatisation and globalisation became prominent.  Samuel Huntington in his famous book ‘Clash of Civilisations’ states that ideological conflict has been replaced by cultural conflicts all over the world.   Ideologies still exist though their overall influence on national and international politics has been reduced. 

What Daniel Bell says about an ideology is worth noting – “A total ideology is an all-inclusive system of comprehensive reality, it is a set of beliefs, infused with passion, and seeks to transform the whole way of life. This commitment to ideology—the yearning for a ‘cause’, or the satisfaction of deep moral feelings—is not necessarily the reflection of interests in the shape of ideas. Ideology, in this sense, and in the sense that we use it here, is a secular religion”

Religion as an ideology

There are many common factors between religion and ideology.  “Religion usually describes the belief in a superhuman controlling power involving a God or gods; it has a system of faith and worship as well as, like ideology, an underlying set of values, myths, ideas, attitudes, beliefs and doctrine that shape the behavioural approach to political, economic, social, cultural and/or ecological activities of an individual or organisation.”  – Robert Burrowes

Major ideologies

Ideology	Developed in	Proponent/s	Area/Region	Supported class/cause	Criticised	Variations – Development
Liberalism	17th Century	John Locke	England, Europe	Middle class, Capitalists, Merchants	Feudalism, Monarchy and the Church	Classical, Modern and Neo-classical, Capitalism – an economic variant related to liberalism
Socialism	19th century	St. Simon, Robert Owen, Charles Fourier, Karl Marx	Europe	Working class	Liberalism, Fascism, Feudalism	Utopian, Scientific and many other variations including Leninism, Stalinism, Maoism.
Conservatism	Traditional way of thinking – exists since the ancient period.	Edmund Burke, Margaret Thatcher and many others.	Europe and many other parts of the world	Ruling classes	Liberals, Feudal system	Numerous variations
Fascism	20th century	Benito Mussolini, Hitler	Europe	In Marxist context ‘the Lumpen elements’ – people who are not interested in advancement of working class revolution and basically the rulers in a given society.	Liberals and all types of socialists	Nazism
Feminism	19th and 20th century, but traces can be found in the ancient and medieval times	Many thinkers	USA, Europe and other parts of the world	Women	All systems working against the liberty of a women	Numerous variations including Eco-feminism propounded by Vandana Shiva
Gandhism	19th and 20th century	Mahatma Gandhi, Vinoba Bhave, Dada Dharmadhikari	India	Sarvodaya – development of all is its ultimate goal.	Strives the heart of the enemy.	Vinoba Bhave and some other followers of Mahatma Gandhi developed the basic ideas to some extent.
Nationalism	16th Century	Many worldwide	Worldwide	Nation-state as an entity	Anti-nationals	Each nation has its own version and style.
Anarchism	Since ancient period	Many worldwide including Leo Tolstoy, Kropotkin, Proudhon	Worldwide	Self-disciplined Voluntary organisation of people	State	Numerous variations
Environmentalism	Since ancient period	Many worldwide	Worldwide	Protection of environment	Those who recklessly exploit environment	Numerous variations
All religions	Since ancient period	Many worldwide	Worldwide	Different principles supported by different religions	Followers of a different religion	Each religion is unique.

Characteristics of an ideology

1. Every ideology is a reaction to some other ideology or prevailing situation

            Ideologies are never produced in a vacuum.  They are always a reaction to the prevailing situation.  Liberalism was a reaction to feudalism.  Similarly, socialism and its various forms including the dominant ‘Scientific Socialism’ or ‘Marxism’ stated by Karl Marx was a response to Liberalism.  Fascism developed as another reaction to liberalism.  Modern liberalism stated by John Stuart Mill emerged as a response to classical liberalism and neo-classical liberalism came as a response to both modern liberalism and socialism.  Vinoba Bhave while describing Gandhism says that it transcends the limits of liberalism and communism – In other words Gandhism was a reaction to liberalism and communism and a response to the particular conditions prevailing in India before independence.

• Ideologies provide a window to see the world

            Ideology provides to its follower a perspective to see and judge the world.  It makes the otherwise meaningless events in the world meaningful.  A follower of Marxist ideology will interpret the conflict between a factory management and workers differently than a capitalist or a liberal.  For a follower of a particular ideology the broad basic framework to judge any situation is always ready.  He has to fill in the details and interpret a particular event.  Thus, the world becomes more meaningful.  Sometimes this ideological framework may distort the truth or create hindrances in the process of finding the ultimate truth in a particular case.  Communists in India, following the Marxist philosophy of class struggle, were initially unable to grasp the role of caste in Indian politics.  As they were viewing the Indian society from the Marxist point of view, which is predominantly European, they were unable to judge the role of the caste system.

• Criticism of the past and present and dreams or plans about future

            In order to establish itself every ideology must critically analyse the past and present situation and offer its own interpretation with proper cause and effect analysis.  It should be able to point out the defects in the past and present systems and formulate alternatives to correct the defects in future.  Famous Marathi poet Vinda Karandikar, a Marxist, said after the fall of USSR, “Communism as an ideology will never die or end as long as there are poor people in the world because it provides a dream of power and wealth and a better tomorrow to them.” 

• Every ideology has its own Christ and Bible

            This means almost all ideologies follow and revere a particular individual and his treatise.  In case of difficulty or confusion the followers always refer to the respected leader, if he is alive, or to his respected works which are considered sacrosanct.   For the Marxist Karl Marx is the Christ and ‘The Capital’, a treatise written by him is as good as a bible.  For Gandhians Mahatma Gandhi is the Christ and his works the bible.  Considering this fact, Mahatma Gandhi, who never believed in Gandhism as an ideology, had asked to cremate all his writings along with him.  He believed that ideas are fresh like a flowing stream and ideology is just like water in a pond which is standstill and therefore attracts all sorts of dirt and insects.  

• Ideologies resist change.

            Resistance to change is an inherent characteristic of all ideologies.  They believe in the supremacy of their philosophy or argument.  For example, slightest deviation from what Marx has stated in his theories is unacceptable to Marxists.  Same will be the case for Gandhians or Neo-Nazis, the current followers of Hitler.

• Ideologies operate on various levels

            Ideologues and the proponents of a particular ideology are well aware of the fact that the levels of understanding and interest of their followers will be different and they must sustain and cater to these varied interests in order to survive and flourish.  A few intellectuals may be interested in understanding the core theory and philosophy, so there are complicated treatises like ‘Das Capital’ explaining the theory.  Activists may be more interested in symbols and slogans, so there are and symbols and slogans like “Tilak, Taraju and Talwar, Lungiwalas, Bhaiyyas…”.  Middle class sympathisers are neither interested in complicated books nor aggressive slogans.  They want simplistic sugar quoted justifications, so there are booklets or articles in Sunday editions of newspapers or magazines. 

• Ideologies inspire

            Ideologies provide inspiration to act.  They prepare the soldiers and activists to fight.    The fervour of nationalism made it possible for ordinary Indians to participate in the Indian independence movement and sustain the brutalities of British government which tested their endurance levels.  Similarly, Naxalites or terrorists commit gruesome acts without a second thought under the influence of a particular ideology – e.g. naxalism or terrorism.

• Ideologies justify

            Ideologies justify the acts of its followers.  English thinker John Locke, regarded as the father of liberalism, justified the glorious revolution of 1688 in his 1691 book ‘Two treatises on government’.  Karl Marx justifies a violent revolution in case the workers have to face an adamant capitalist class.  Indiscriminate killing of animals – sacrifice – is justified by various religious practices. 

Now as we are quite familiar with the concept of ideology we will explore three major ideologies in detail.  

Marxism

The term ‘Marxism’ is derived from the name of its main proponent Karl Marx (1818-1883).  Marx was a German by birth.  After completing his University education, in Germany, he was working as a freelance journalist.  Because of his anti-establishment writings he was expelled from his home country.  He took refuge in a few European countries and finally settled in England.  He wrote his major books when he was in England, a liberal country.  Fredrick Engels (1820-1895) was his friend and close aide who was also a co-author of their books and manifestos. 

The Utopian Socialists

Throughout his life Marx supported the working class, expected them to revolt and take over power.  He calls them the have-nots or the exploited class.   During his times (19th century) the industrial revolution was in full swing.  The power of the capitalist class was on the rise.  The emerging liberal state, based on John Locke’s liberal ideas, having a policy of non-interference, particularly in economic matters, favoured the profiteering capitalist class and hardly paid any attention to the problems of the working class.  The workers had no forum or institution to lodge their complaints.

But there were a few compassionate individuals in the European society like St. Simon, Robert Owen, Charles Fourier who were disturbed by the conditions of the workers and had sympathy for the workers.  They suggested that capitalist owners should restrain their profiteering and consider the welfare of the working class.  They adopted some measures in their own factories like increasing wages, granting casual and medical leaves, weekly holidays.  These entrepreneurs with a soft corner for the working class were known as socialists.  Although they changed the conditions in their own factories for better, the trend was not universal.  Exploitation of the working class continued.  Marx calls these socialists – Utopian socialists.  They were socialists but didn’t understand the intricacies of the functioning of capitalism and therefore were unable to change it.  

Scientific Socialism or Marxism

As against the ideas of utopian socialists Karl Marx developed his own ideology and named it ‘Scientific Socialism’ which was later known as Marxism.  Scientific socialism or Marxism supports the working class in the society.   Liberating and empowering the working class is the ultimate goal of this ideology.  In the Communist Manifesto, a political pamphlet published in 1848 along with Fredrick Engels, Marx outlines his plan of liberation of working class through revolution, establishing the socialist society, taking over the state machinery, ending capitalism and the institution of private property and ultimately establishing the Communist society.  In his book The Capital (originally written in German – Das Capital) he explains his ideology in details.

Marx was very much influenced by Hegel and his concept of dialectics.  Hegel had stated that development is dialectic process.   Material development is the reflection of development of ideas.  Development means the unfolding of the spirit.  But according to Marx matter is more important than ideas.  Ideas are shaped by material conditions – dialectical materialism.

According to Marx it is necessary to understand the functioning of a system before attempting to change it.  He made a systematic attempt to understand capitalism and destroy it. 

The process of production

According to Karl Marx production of some sort is necessary for human survival.  It may take different forms, but it is inevitable.  The inevitable process of production has a profound impact on social, political and economic life, in fact it is shaped by the process of production.  It involves means of production such as land, labour, capital and enterprise.

Ownership of means of production and Haves and Have-nots 

Ownership of means of production is important.  Those who own the means of production, control the process of production.  They control the economy and therefore politics.  Society is divided into two classes – Haves and Have-nots – Haves are those who have the ownership of means of production and have-nots are those who do not own the means of production – the labourers.  They do not own labour.  Labourers are hired by the entrepreneurs.  Labour is a perishable factor.  15 to 60 is normally considered as the working age.  Day by day the labourer’s capacity to work diminishes.  So, he has to work hard and save for the future.  Competition among labourers is fierce as jobs are scarce.  All this makes the life of a worker very tough.

Mode of production and the society

Mode of production is the second important thing after ownership of means of production.  Mode of production decides the form of the society.  Marx broadly classifies human history into following stages of development: –

1. Primitive Communism – This was a classless society.  None had property.  No classes therefore no class struggle and no state.
2. Slave society – The society was divided in two classes – the slaves – the have nots and their masters – the haves.  Masters were in a minority but well organised.  Slaves were an unorganised lot.  Masters controlled and exploited the slaves.  Wealth of the masters was measured on the basis of number of slaves they owned.       
3. Feudal society – In this society agriculture was the basic mode of production.  Ownership of land decided the status of a person.  Landlords and Serfs were the two classes – landlords representing the haves or the exploiters and serfs representing the have-nots or the exploited.  The serfs were better than the slaves in a sense that they were not sold.  But they were bound to the land. (similar to that of the bonded labourers in India.)
4. Capitalist society – Capitalism developed after the industrial revolution.  Capital in various forms was a deciding factor during this period.  Power centres shifted from rural areas and land to the newly formed cities and industries.  Industrial workers and the Capitalist class were the two classes – Workers exploited by the Capitalists.  The state is just like a weapon in the hands of the ruling class that is the capitalist class.  State is neutral.  It works for the benefits of the ruling class.  It always supports the haves.     
5. Socialist society – Marx argues that the capitalist society provides the best opportunity to the have-nots to be free.  They are concentrated in large numbers in urban centres.  Because of internal contradictions of capitalism small capitalists merge with the big shots – mergers and acquisitions.  Wealth is concentrated in few hands.  It is easy for the workers to organise and revolt against the capitalists. As the famous saying goes, “Workers of the world unite; you have nothing to lose but your chains”.  Marx advocates a revolution, if necessary a violent revolution, to overthrow the capitalist system.  After a successful proletarian (working class) revolution the capitalist system will be destroyed.  The institution of private property will be abolished and there will be only one class in the society – the working class or the proletariat.  They will run the government and that society with a single class will be a socialist society.  There will be no class struggle as the second class is abolished.   All members will work and get their fair compensation.   
6. Communist society – This is the last stage of development of the society.  It will be a classless society.  There will be no classes in the society.  Everyone will be equal.  Everybody will work as much as possible for the betterment of the society and take as little as possible from it just for the sake of survival.  There will be no private property and no conflict – no class struggle.  As the state will have no duty to perform.  The process of withering away of the state will begin and ultimately the state will be destroyed.  Therefore, the communist society will be a classless and stateless society.

Lenin’s theory of Party    

Russian revolution in 1917 led by V. I. Lenin was the first successful attempt to create a socialist society according to the Marxist ideology.  Lenin was basically a political activist.  His understanding of the working class was different from that of Marx.  According to Lenin spontaneous revolution of the working class was impossible.  Workers will find it difficult to understand the theories of state, power, classes, class struggle and revolution.  They need a step by step guide and for that purpose he suggested the creation of the Communist Party.  It will work as the vanguard of the revolution.  The Bolshevik party was converted into the Communist party in 1918.  It led the revolution.  It was a violent revolution.  Many were killed, many left Russia and others surrendered.  The Tsar (Emperor), Nicholas II was executed, and the communist system was established.  In 1918 the first constitution was created.  USSR – Union of Soviet Socialist Republics became a super power competing with the other super power, the USA.    The Communist system continued to exist till the collapse of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics – USSR in 1991.        

Fascism

Fascism is a 20^th century ideology.  It developed mainly in Italy and Germany during the interwar period i.e. end of the first world war in 1918 and beginning of the second world war in 1939.  It was a result of many local, national and international factors.   But Fascist tendencies can be seen throughout human history in various regions of the world. 

According to Francis Cooker “Fascism as an organised movement to control the policy of Italy took definite origin at Milan on March 23, 1919”.  The meeting called by Mussolini formed a Fascio de comabttimento (Fighting Band).  Ex-soldiers having radical political views were the main participants of the meeting.  They strongly opposed the working classes and their movement.  Later on, returning army officers, jobless, disillusioned but adventurous lower middle-class youngsters joined the group.

It was basically a nationalist, counter-revolutionary, anti-socialist movement.  Force and intimidation were its principal means of action.  In 1920 armed groups were formed.  These groups attacked the communists, journalists and revolutionary speakers, destroyed property.  Industrialists and landlords supported the movement.  They thought the fascists will protect their economic interests and gave generous financial assistance.  The government adopted a neutral attitude towards the violent fascist movement. 

The roots of fascism are seen in the failure of the parliamentary government to administer the country.  Corrupt and arrogant leaders, majority of people disinterested in national politics, and the rise of the socialist movement supported by the Bolsheviks were the salient features of Italy before the emergence of Fascism.  Chaotic conditions prevailed.   

Italy was united in 1861.  Until that time it was divided in many small kingdoms.  Victor Emmanuel of Piedmont ruled unified Italy.  The Piedmont constitution (1848 – granted by his father) was accepted as the constitution which borrowed the parliamentary system from England and the centralised internal administrative system from France.  Both these countries had the experience of centuries and they had evolved these systems through a gradual process.  For Italy it was very odd to accept these systems. 

Mussolini, a child of a blacksmith, was a revolutionary socialist as a young man.  He was also a teacher.  Later he abandoned his profession and went to Switzerland.  There he worked for the labour movement.  He was imprisoned many times in Switzerland, Austria and Italy.  In 1910 he returned to Italy, joined the socialist movement and started working as a journalist.  He was promoted to the post of editor of Avanti, (Italian term for ‘forward’) mouthpiece of the Italian socialist party. 

Mussolini opposed the idea of participation in the first world war.  This was the official position of the socialist party.  Later Mussolini changed his views and advocated participation in the war and was expelled from the party.  He entered the army and served there till 1917.  After the end of the first world war he started editing Popolo d’ Italia (People of Italy) which he had founded earlier. 

On March 23, 1919 Mussolini formed the fascist organisation – Fasci di Combattimento.  Ex-soldiers, returning army officers, jobless disillusioned but adventurous youth from the middle and lower middle classes and land-owning families and other anti-socialists became its members.

Fascist Doctrine

It is argued that Fascism has no doctrinal basis, it’s a practical philosophy.  Mussolini used to say that Fascism is based on reality, not on theory like Bolshevism.  My programme is action, not talk.  Alfred Rocco supported this argument when he said – “Acting first, theorising afterword, deriving its creed from experience and not from reasoning.”

Giovanni Gentile, known as a Fascist philosopher says “Fascist doctrine is not be found primarily in formal treatises but rather in deals and proposals of men actually engaged in realising Fascist aims”.  He claims that Fascism follows the Italian idealism of Mazzini.  Alfred Rocco, another Fascist philosopher, says, “though we commit many errors of detail we very seldom go astray on fundamentals”.  Mussolini declares that fascism has a doctrine or a philosophy with regard to all the questions that beset the human mind today.

The Fascists substitute Liberty, Equality and Fraternity with Responsibility, Discipline and Hierarchy.  According to them a nation needs law, order and efficiency rather than liberty and real liberty is possible only under a political system which rigidly enforces law, order and efficiency.  Law and the state are the supreme manifestations of liberty.

Just as the private self-realisation of an individual comes about only under the restraint and direction exercised by his rational and spiritual faculties over his physical instincts, so the development of finer types of individuals in society is made possible by the supremacy of public law and order over all the degenerative activities of its average citizens.  The citizen gains true personality and freedom not by safeguarding some private interest or by giving expressions to some individual capacity but only by losing or merging himself in larger unities – his family, church and finally state.

For the fascists the nation is more important than any or all of its members and public interest predominates the private interest. 

They favour centralised political authority over decentralisation and democratic values.  According to the fascists the elites in the society are the only ones who are competent to speak for the nation.  These ideas determine the fascist principles of governmental structure and policy.

For them political aristocracy is a reasonable form of government.  Political power must reside in the hands of those few who understand the true nature of national interest.  The rank and file or the activists of the fascist party have no right to criticise the leaders or express their assent or dissent.  They should follow the orders of their leaders and perform their duties with utmost sincerity.  Political leaders must not try to win popular favour.  They must have ability to inspire respect and exact obedience.  Parliament should not impose popular will on the rulers but try to explain the fascist policies to the people.  Parliament will consist representatives of industrial and professional associations.

Fascism describes itself as replacing the atomistic by the corporative concept of national state.  The state is constituted not of individuals but groups of nationally minded and nationally acting individuals.  Important unities in an organism are not the cells but organs.  In the national organism the organs are the groups in which individuals fall naturally in performing useful social and economic functions.  These essential groups are essential and natural, but they must exist not for class competition but for national cooperation.  For all groups national interest must be the primary objective.

There must be a single controlling head at the topmost post in the nation.  The national executive must maintain close control over all subordinates and local agencies.  Political authority must be concentrated and coercive.  Fascists defend violence as a means to achieve political aims.  For two opposing movements the only way out is physical conflict.  Most powerful group will control the society.  Nobody can restrain them.  For the fascists the ordinary man is “self-centred, fickle – changing his loyalties frequently, covetous, unadventurous and without a sense of public values.  He is aroused to diligent, heroic, public spirited action only when he is prodded, restrained and inspired by his valorous superiors.  He must be made either to love his government or to fear its fury…The man who is unwilling or unable to be a ruthless despot is not fit to be the head of the state.” 

Following the suppression of general strike in August 1922 Mussolini says in a speech “After having made use of it (violence) systematically for forty-eight hours, we got results which we should not have obtained in forty-eight years of sermons and propaganda.  When, therefore, violence removes a gangrene of this sort, it is morally sacred and necessary”.

The Fascists discriminate between the disintegrating violence of revolutionary socialism and their own ‘holy’ violence.  Violence is a surgical method of rehabilitating a diseased body.

Economic ideas

Fascists does not recognise right to property of the individual as the liberals and labourer’s rights as the socialists.  While considering all economic issues national utility is the main matter of concern for them.  Production and distribution of wealth are matters of national concern.  Nation must be economically consolidated.  Private property is allowed and encouraged.  But national interest is more important than right to private property and individuals should be ready to sacrifice their property for the nation.  There is no unlimited right to property.  Private property can be nationalised if it is necessary to do so in the interest of the nation. 

According to the Fascist doctrine loyalty to the nation is supreme – loyalty to individual conscience or reason, to an economic class, to international tribunals is not allowed. 

Nations are free when they are fully masters of their own future.  Political obligations are more important for an individual than his rights.  This is fascist totalitarianism.  No sphere of individual life is immune from political authority.

The ideal of the fascists is the national state well-ordered internally, aggressive and bent on expansion.

It is the rule through force and fear rather than intellectual and moral persuasion.  It is a modified application of ideas stated by Plato, Machiavelli, Hobbes and Hegel.  The fascists were also inspired by the ideas of Georges Sorel (1847-1922) – a French philosopher. 

Fascism in Italy

Restoration of the power of the Italian nation externally and establishment of vigour and efficiency in domestic administration were the main objectives of the Fascist party of Italy.  For them individual liberties had least importance.  They often used Intimidation, physical compulsion, official censorship and propaganda to seize and maintain and increase power.

Complete political centralisation was achieved through laws and decrees from 1923 to 1928.  In 1926 all opposition parties were dissolved, those who tried to revive the parties were imprisoned.  Power of Parliament was reduced through decrees.  King remained the formal constitutional head, but the Premier became the head of the government.  Other ministers were subordinates of the premier.  Thus, all institutions of constitutional democracy were destroyed.  Official groups were created by the government in all walks of life.  Their representatives were sent to Parliament. Fascist groups received regular training from the armed forces.  They were integrated with the armed forces. 

Opponents were always crushed mercilessly.  Antonio Gramsci’s (1891-1937) case can be a perfect example.  He was an Italian Marxist philosopher and communist politician.  He was sentenced to jail for 20 years in 1927.  But he was released from the prison in 1934 on the grounds of ill health, only three years prior to his death in 1937.

Kidnappings, beatings, slayings of opponents by the fascist bands was a common thing during the fascist regime.  All these activities were tolerated by the regime.  Criticism of the government was a punishable offence.  There was rigid government control over all sorts of publications including daily newspapers.  Religious and educational policies were changed to suite the fascist regime.  Mussolini who was outspokenly anti-religious, adjusted the policies and made peace with the Church.  There was a type of mutual understanding between the State and the Church.  The Fascists had to make peace with the Church because one of their main partners, the Nationalists, favoured the Church.  Liberals were the common enemies of the Church and the Fascists.  Educational system was completely controlled by the state. 

Manufacturers, Bankers, Landowners and Merchants supported the Fascist movement – All property owners supported the fascist movement.  Many support fascists because of their swift and effective action against the labour movement and communism.  Few thinkers have also praised the achievements of the fascist regime in Italy.  But critics say

Fascism and Communism

There are some similarities between Communism and Fascism – both believe in violence, compulsion, coercion, espionage.  Both criticise liberalism and democratic ideals.  They want to control school curriculums, fear free discussion.  In both the systems party and the government are the same.  Both systems had aggressive leaders.

German Nazis

The ‘National Socialists’ or the Nazi of Germany followed the Italian fascist model of government.  Adolf Hitler was their strong and ruthless leader like Mussolini of Italy.  They had the storm troopers like the fascist bands of Italy.  SS (German – The Schutzstaffel – Protection Squadron) and Gestapo (German – Geheime Staatspolizei – Secret State Police) did all the intimidation and espionage.  Hitler attacked Berlin and captured power.  The Nazis ruthlessly destroyed their opponents.  They killed about six million Jews.      (The Holocaust – genocide of European Jews – two thirds of European Jewish population were killed.)

Common people believe in fascists because of their claims about getting things done.  But the claims of popularity of the regime made by the fascist governments worldwide are doubtful as all channels of free expression of ideas are always blocked by the fascist regimes.  “If Fascism were popular with the people, it would not need to keep the country under a regime of constant espionage and repression.    

Feminism

In all sorts of sports competitions at all levels – from the local to Olympics, men and women have separate events.  Men and women have different world records in all events.  The records are lower for women.  The iron ball that is used in women shot put competitions weighs less than the iron ball which is used for shot put competitions of men.  Does this mean that women are physically weaker than men particularly in the matter of strength and endurance?  Yes, it is an accepted fact.  But does this mean they are weaker than men in all respects?  This is a myth which is unfortunately accepted as a fact world over. 

Modern research in Psychology claims that women have a much better emotional quotient than men and women are better communicators and coordinators.  Giving birth to a child is in itself the rebirth of that particular woman.  Women are hard workers, sincere.  In Indian villages women equally participate in agricultural activities with men besides doing all the household activities.  In matrilineal and matriarchal societies women play a dominant role but of course such societies are exceptional.  The world is basically patriarchal, a male dominated society. 

Throughout the world with a very few exceptions women were confined to domestic activities while men enjoyed public life.  They still don’t have equal property rights in many countries.  They are compelled to cover their entire body.   In some parts of the world husbands had the right to sell their wife or wives.  Many countries still deny the right to vote and participate in political activities to women.  In progressive countries like USA women were not allowed to conduct business without a male business partner.  They had little access to education.  Jean Jacques Rousseau portrayed women as silly and frivolous creatures, born to be subordinate to men.

Mahadeo Govind Ranade teaching his wife Ramabai Ranade was considered a revolutionary step and Mahatma Jyotiba Phule and Savitribai Phule had to suffer a lot because they encouraged girls to attend school and learn in the 19th century. 

The practice of Sati was banned by the British government by an act in 1829.  We have the case of Roop Kanwar in 1987 in Rajasthan.  The Commission of Sati (Prevention) Act 1987 was enacted all over India in 1988.  

Even today women are denied entrance to many religious places.  Recently there were agitations    

Women all over the world right from the ancient period through the medieval to the modern period had a secondary status as compared to men.  The title of the book ‘Second Sex’ written by one of the famous 20th century French existentialist, who later came to be known as a feminist, Simone de Beauvoir reflects this reality. 

Feminism is a response to all these repressive conditions and negative attitudes.  Feminism is a philosophy which advocates equality of men and women in social, political and economic fields.

Origins of feminism can be traced back in the ancient period but it developed as a movement (feminist movement) and spread all over the world mainly in the 19th and 20th century.  It favours social, political and economic equality between men and women.  Modern feminist movement originated in USA.

In 14th and 15th century Christian de Pisan, a French feminist philosopher gave a bold call for female education.  Thought there were many feminist thinkers who talked about the problems faced by women during the Renaissance period, there was no coherent movement.   In 1792 Mary Wollstonecraft published her famous book A Vindication of Rights of Woman in England.  She said women does not exist only to please men and they must get equal opportunities in education, work and politics.  Women have same intellectual capacities as men.  “If they are silly it is only because society trains them to be irrelevant.”  

First wave of feminism

In 1848 German and French feminists published newspapers.  The first women’s rights convention was held in July 1948 in Seneca Falls, a small town in the New York state of USA.  The convention using the declaration of independence claimed that men and women are equal.  It also demanded the right to vote for women. 

All these activities were limited to the upper or upper middle-class women.  They were not connected to the women working in factories and fields and non-white women.   And therefore, sometimes in the US, these working class and black women criticised the feminist movement and opposed some of their demands.  Working class women had their own problems.  They were more interested in the issues of wages, working hours rather than the issues of voting and property rights.  But finally, they also started demanding voting rights on racist grounds. 

Emma Goldman basically an anarchist rather than a feminist made many sensational comments like this one: – “To the moralist prostitution does not consist so much in the fact that the woman sells her body, but rather that she sells it out of wedlock.”  According to Goldman women will be free if they refuse the right to anyone on their body and if they refuse to be the servant of God, state, society, family and by making their life simpler but deeper and richer.  Women will be liberated only when they free themselves from the home and become independent of men. 

In Britain Emmeline Pankhurst chose the method of boycotts, bombings and picketing.   Finally, in 1918 the British Parliament granted the right to vote to household women and university graduates over the age of 30.  This had a negative impact on the feminist movement in UK and US.  The movement had concentrated on the right to vote.  Once they achieved their goal a vacuum was created, and the movement was divided into many small groups, each supporting a separate set of demands.

There was a conflict of ideas between those who were demanding equal status and others who were concentrating on having special laws and schemes sanctioned for welfare of women.  Most of them were interested in welfare measures.  Very few were interested in equality with men.

Feminist movement was side-tracked because of Great depression and later World War II.  Women got some employment opportunities due to the war.  ‘Rosie the Riveter’ became an American icon.  But the situation went back to normal after the end of the war in 1945.  Women

Rosie the Riveter

lost their jobs to men returned from the war.  Women again concentrated on household work and child rearing. 

The Second Wave of Feminism

Feminist movement in 1960s and 70s is known as the second wave of feminism.  In 1961 President J. F. Kennedy appointed the President’s commission on the status of women.  Eleanor Roosevelt was its chairperson.  Its report was published in 1963.  It supported the nuclear family.  It also supported equal pay, legal equality and special support services for working women.  Laws were passed to that effect.   But still the issues of access to contraception, rape, domestic violence remained unresolved.  

National Organisation for Women – NOW – was founded in 1966.  It took the multi issue and multi strategy approach to women’s rights.  Rape crisis centres were established.  Currently NOW is the largest feminist organization in USA.  Changes were made to school textbooks to avoid sexual stereotypes.  Women’s studies departments were founded in colleges and universities.  One such department exists in the Savitribai Phule Pune University in Maharashtra, India. 

Discrimination against women at workplaces was punished by law.  Women began finding jobs in male dominated jobs as pilots, soldiers, bankers etc.  There was a lot of theoretical discussion about problems of women.  Kate Millet published her book Sexual Politics in 1970.  “Personal was also political” that means what happens in the family can’t be neglected as a private affair was her main argument in the book.

Even during the second wave of feminism lack of single coherent feminist ideology remained as an important issue. 

Third Wave of Feminism     

The third wave of feminism is generally believed to be started in the early years of 1990.   Activist involved in the third wave were the next generation after the second wave feminists.  They got all the benefits of the second wave feminism.  Women during this wave had become more powerful.  The information revolution and the use of media and social media had a great impact on the wave of feminism.  They attempted to redefine the ideas of second wave feminism.  Authentic gender identity – deciding about one’s own gender based on one’s own feeling – constructing one’s authentic gender identity.  The third wave was much more inclusive than the first and second waves of feminism.  Singers like Madonna are icons of the third wave.  Many expressed their feelings through blogs published on the internet. 

Feminism outside the western world

After the second world war the feminist movement gradually developed in some other parts of the world besides the US and the Western European countries.  India also witnessed a rise in the feminist movement in 1970s and 80s.  Problems of women in the developing world were different from that of the western societies.  Female Genital Mutilation (FGM), female infanticide, forced marriages, secondary status in family, dowry, dowry deaths, inter caste marriages and honour killings were their major problems. 

1975 was declared by the United Nations as International Women’s Year and since that year 8^th March is celebrated as International Women’s Day.  1976 to 1985 was declared as United Nations Decade for Women. 

The United Nations organized four world conferences on women from 1975 to 1995.

1975 – Mexico City

1980 – Copenhagen

1985 – Nairobi

1995 – Beijing

The Beijing conference mentioned 12 critical areas of concern for women all over the world: –

1. Women and poverty
2. Education and training of women
3. Women and health
4. Violence against women
5. Women and armed conflict
6. Women and the economy
7. Women in power and decision-making
8. Institutional mechanism for the advancement of women
9. Human rights of women
10. Women and the media
11. Women and the environment

1. The girl-child

Questions: –

1. Explain the salient features of an ideology?
2. What is ‘scientific socialism?
3. What are the characteristic features of a fascist state?
4. Explain the concept of three waves of feminism.

References

1. Ideology and Religion – http://www.ipsnews.net/2016/07/the-psychology-of-ideology-and-religion/
2. Good discussion of ‘Ideology’ – https://www.britannica.com/topic/ideology-society
3. Official website of the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation – NATO – https://www.nato.int/
4. For a thorough discussion of Marxism – https://www.britannica.com/topic/Marxism
5. Marxists Internet Archive – https://www.marxists.org/
6. The Sati Act of 1987 – http://wcd.nic.in/commission-sati-prevention-act-1987-3-1988-excluding-administration-criminal-justice-regard-offences
7. NOW – National organisation for women –  https://now.org/about/